Super‐intensive shrimp culture: Analysis and future challenges

Aquaculture has immense potential to support future food security and sustainability. The increase in aquaculture production been significant but, at the current rate, will not be enough cover expected protein demand. Over past decade, increased by around 50%, but growth was only 2.7% 2020. Most of occurs developing countries, with major output from extensive semi-intensive systems. Countries Asia (83.4% production) Latin America (16.3%) account for share shrimp production, based on two species: Pacific white (Litopenaeus vannamei) 83% tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) 12%. India Ecuador have augmented their yields significantly, latter increasing roughly 100% a reaching over 1 million tons 2021, valued Ecuador's Central Bank USD 5.3 billion (Ekos, 2022), without rearing area. Semi-intensive still an average 1250 kg/ha/cycle (Marcillo, 2017), farmers can now consistently operate 3 cycles/year are working implementing best-aquaculture practices industry. In spite that, further increases difficult achieve system, as space is limited higher impacts environment systems undesirable (Boyd et al., 2022). challenge improve nutrition, while reducing requirements impact requires improved, controlled, more resilient, intensive As increases, species enter commodity status price these products decrease, requiring cost efficiencies such businesses survive economically, including efficient supply processing chains. case shrimp, 1987, 250,000 thousand per year, mostly coming farms. we approach 7 ton mark, comes mainly Yields 40 tons/ha/cycle produced RAS (Krummenauer 2011), published experimental results 100 showing possibilities super-intensification. Nevertheless, challenges remain. last twenty years, industry advanced overcome various problems. Results polls stakeholders Global Seafood Alliance show that diseases, costs, access disease-free broodstock, seed stock quality, trade barriers, market prices leading reasons move towards intensification way assert control value chain (Anderson 2019). We define super-intensive system L. vannamei, one uses lined ponds, raceways, or tanks stocking densities 150 m2 during applies level technology. effective maximizes productivity energy expended harming minimizes water utilization, typically less than 250 L/kg which possible zero exchange should yield 1200 kilos shrimp/kW energy. To most use nurseries. Open ponds produce 2–3 crops year >30 tons/ha (1.2 kg/m3), raceways least 2.5 kg/m3, greenhouses generate 3+ density 4.5 kg/m3. this, understanding interactions between design, biosecurity strategies, quality well technology development, climate change, social compliance culture essential, capital investment 5–10 times typical system. Biofloc commonly used culture. It relies beneficial microbe manipulation minimize need propitiate in-pond nutrient reuse contributes reduce wastes supplemental requirements. Proficient microbial needed form aggregates key successful operation, appropriate engineering, supplies, management. biofloc occupies column colonizes gut, thus limiting vacant niches pathogen development providing varied base, improving digestibility, availability, intake. A recent review Emerenciano al. (2022) describes different depending whether they heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic, photoautotrophic, mixotrophic. Scientific information available limited, particularly relation dynamics ecosystem cultured organism. While commercial shown good (Taw, economic viability yet proven. both technological chain. evaluating too many technologies, dilutes effort also puts pressure traditional suppliers who meet new demands Recognized include feeds, use, genetic selection terms organism environmental, social, welfare issues farmers. Diseases were responsible decline 2009 2014, when lost, America. White spot syndrome virus, acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease, enterocytozoon hepatopenaei, feces syndrome, impacted substantial losses (Shinn 2018), so producers look controlled mitigate this risk. some large producer countries rely where farms lack biosecurity. Indiscriminate antibiotics problem, diseases become established original like specific free (SPF) broodstock contain effective. Disease causes increasingly favor survival growth. Several lines being tolerant disease. time, differences evident, separating programs solid those relying multiplication surviving individuals. prove rates maintaining acceptable levels growth, feed conversion, physiological resilience, fecundity. Recently, D'Abramo (2021) summarized nutritional advances aquaculture. systems, SPF lines, genetically selected thrive needed. Particularly requirements, better amino acid alternate lipid sources, interaction microbes microalgae biofloc-based made remarkable deliver high-quality product farm, diets macro ingredients fish, soybean, wheat meals, fish vegetable oils, complemented mix vitamins minerals. One develop sources volumes costs represent feasible alternative. Current substitutes high-carbon footprint source, alternatives (e.g., insect meal) costly sufficient volumes. Vegetable-based proteins hold promise require enzyme activity redirected compound carbohydrates. minerals diet flow-through clear-water its relevance defined Significant reductions protein, acid, vitamin-mineral significantly. Similarly, goal C:N ratios (15:1 photoautotrophic chemotrophic systems; 20:1 heterotrophic systems) frequently leads over-use carbon excess organic matter needs eliminated. More in-depth analysis microbe-based were, ironically, originally developed eliminate wastes. From environmental license perspective, there convert high load, includes uneaten feed, feces, other matter, into biomass, proteins, nutrients effectively secondary (such mollusk, cultivars). Another balance requirement water-stable pelletized extruded feeds farm dynamics, feeding behavior (i.e., manipulating select particles) required load must met, natural contribution actual consumption. relevant topic evaluated relationship total resilience stressed dissolved oxygen (DO) maximize (>6 mg/L). Genetic highly adapted conditions (salinity, temperature, pH, density, type, etc.) essential. DO, carrying capacity affected all factors. Villarreal presented data 12-h reduction aeration 42% final weight no-water photoheterotrophic even DO mg/L. Villarreal-García indicated because 48% routine metabolic demand resulted threshold conform critical saturation. Shrimp discrete depends molting. This creates very culture, extraordinary amount complete molting process leaves animal exposed cannibalism, death through exhaustion, unable maintain levels, whose unbalanced potentially harmful bacteria (or fungi parasites). These chronic stresses shrimp. Shelters hiding places vulnerable animals freshwater crayfish) allow aggressive cannibalism (Villarreal & Naranjo, 2006). led yields. Information multilayer limited. High fecundity variability important traits selective breeding aquatic domestication. ensure post larvae suited role enhanced improvement. Gjedrem (2012) mention full- half-sib family structures focus improvement rate. Clean pathogen-free organisms domestication risk disease farming. adaptive immunity innate immune responses. means vaccination manage possible. On hand, heritability tolerance vannamei low moderate. However, Roy (2020) reviewed genomics contributing programs, post-transcriptional gene silencing RNA interference, regulates expression protein-coding genes involved resistance pathogenic nucleic acids (Robalino 2005). Castillo-Juárez (2015) report time using techniques up 2.6 greater phenotypic sib selection. Apart often consider traits, tolerance, reduced demand, relative importance each benefit/cost analyses perform reproduction, tolerance) conditions, knowledge correlation them For According Giri (2022), exotic (L. much unit-area profitability types agribusiness involves financial little incentive users technologies Ecuador) intensify business model currently economically demonstrated viability. Of particular consideration expenditure needed, frozen chains rather fresh, never-frozen, addition, question ability offer complies guidelines. At issue topics ablation, management rearing, humane sacrifice harvest. questions advantages certifying operations if does result sale product. evident replication models Certainly, China expect able double volume same cultural Intensification farming health, physiological, metabolic, thriving environments. Focused scientific this. sustainability kilogram produced, water, lower conversion ratio, optimize farmland resources. They socially responsible, engage local communities effectively, traceable certifiable harvested high-technology comply practices.